Three-dimensional polymer networks with channels situated therein

ABSTRACT

The disclosure provides three-dimensional crosslinked polymer networks comprising one or more channels extending from the surface and/or near the surface of the network into the interior of the network, arrays comprising the networks, processes for making the networks, and uses of the networks and arrays.

1. CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a division of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/008,728, filed Jan. 28, 2016, now allowed, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 to European application no. 15201355, filed Dec. 18, 2015, the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entireties by reference thereto.

2. BACKGROUND

U.S. Publication No. 2008/0293592 describes a method for covalently immobilizing probe-biomolecules on organic surfaces by means of photoreactive crosslinking agents. The method has in practice proven to be advantageous particularly because it permits an immobilization of probe biomolecules on unreactive surfaces, such as silanized glass supports and substrates made of standard commercial plastics. A polymer is used in the method described in US 2008/0293592 to form a type of three-dimensional network onto which the probe biomolecules can be bonded, either at the network's surface or in the inside of the network. Compared to an organic surface on which the probe biomolecules are only immobilized in two-dimensional form, the three-dimensional immobilization of the biomolecules in the polymer and/or copolymer network permits a higher density of the probe biomolecules on the organic surface. This increases the amount of analyte which can be bonded per surface unit of the organic surface. Use of the surface as biological sensor thus gives rise to a higher measurement accuracy and a high measurement dynamic.

However, a disadvantage of the methods and polymer networks described in U.S. 2008/0293592 is that analyte molecules or analyte components which bind to probe biomolecules arranged on or close to the surface of the polymer network can block the network. Further analyte molecules or analyte constituents can then no longer bind as well to as yet unbound probe biomolecules which are arranged at a greater distance from the surface of the network in its interior.

Thus, there is a need for improved polymer networks.

3. SUMMARY

This disclosure provides three-dimensional polymer networks comprising a crosslinked polymer and one or more channels that extend from a surface and/or near a surface of the network into the network's interior. The networks are suitably covalently attached to a surface. One or more probes, such as a biomolecule, can be immobilized on the surface of the network and throughout the interior of the network, providing a sensor for detecting the presence of and/or measuring the amount of an analyte in a sample. For example, nucleic acid probes can be used to detect complementary nucleic acids present in a sample and antibody probes can be used to detect antigens present in a sample. The networks of the disclosure allow for faster hybridization of a given amount of analyte than networks lacking channels because the channels can effectively increase the surface area of the network, exposing more probes to the sample in a given amount of time. Additionally, the networks of the disclosure can bind more analyte than the same volume of a channel-free network because the channels decrease or eliminate the problem whereby analyte or other components of a sample bound to probes at or near the surface of the network block access to probes located in the interior of the network. Another advantage of the networks of the disclosure is that the high amount of analyte loading made possible by the channels allows for a more sensitive detection of analyte than may be possible with a channel-free network, i.e., the signal to noise ratio can be improved compared to channel-free networks because a given amount of analyte can be concentrated in a smaller network volume. Yet another advantage of the networks of the disclosure is that the high analyte loading made possible by the channels allows for quantification of a wider range of analyte concentrations compared to channel-free networks.

This disclosure also provides arrays comprising a plurality of the three-dimensional networks of the disclosure and a substrate. Arrays of the disclosure can be used to detect and/or measure one or more analytes in one or more samples simultaneously. The arrays of the disclosure can be washed and reused, providing a significant cost advantage over single use arrays. Another advantage of the arrays of the disclosure is that they can be manufactured in a simple manner because all of the components needed to make an individual network can be applied as a single mixture onto a surface of the substrate during the manufacturing process.

This disclosure also provide processes for making the three-dimensional networks and arrays of the disclosure. The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure can be made by crosslinking a polymer in the presence of salt crystals, preferably needle-shaped salt crystals, and subsequently dissolving the salt crystals to leave behind channels in the crosslinked polymer network.

This disclosure also provides processes for using the three-dimensional networks and arrays of the disclosure to detect and/or measure an analyte in a sample, preferably a liquid sample.

4. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows a diagrammatic representation of a mixture which has a probe biomolecule (1) and a polymer (3) comprising two photoreactive groups (4) per molecule dissolved in an aqueous salt solution.

FIG. 2 shows shows a cross-section through a drop of the mixture (5) shown in FIG. 1 having a surface (10) located at a spot (7) of an organic surface (2) which is situated on a heated holder (6).

FIG. 3 shows shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 2 after the mixture has been heated and needle-shaped salt crystals (8) extending from crystallization germs (9) have been formed in the salt solution.

FIG. 4 shows shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 3 after the mixture has been dried and irradiated with optical radiation (11) to form a polymer network (15) having a surface (16).

FIG. 5 shows shows a diagrammatic representation of the mixture of FIG. 1 following irradiation with optical radiation.

FIG. 6 shows shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 4 after dissolving the salt crystals in a solvent (12), forming channels (13).

FIG. 7 shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 2 after the mixture has been cooled on a chilled holder (14) and needle-shaped salt crystals have been formed in the salt solution.

FIG. 8 shows shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 7 after the mixture has been dried and irradiated with optical irradiation.

FIG. 9 shows shows a cross-section through the arrangement shown in FIG. 8 following dissolution of the salt crystals with a solvent.

FIG. 10 shows a reaction pathway for the formation of p(Dimethyacryamide co Methacryloyl-Benzophenone co Sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate).

FIG. 11 shows a perspective view of a biochip (17) having an organic surface (2) on which polymer networks (15) are located at spots (7) arranged as a matrix of rows and columns.

FIG. 12 shows a top view of a biochip (17) as shown in FIG. 11, where each polymer network (15) has a diameter (D), and where the rows and columns are separated by a distance Y and a distance X, respectively, measured from the center points of the polymer networks (15).

FIG. 13 shows a biosensor (17′) comprising a flexible substrate band (18) having an organic surface (2) on which polymer networks (15) having a diameter (D) are located at spots (7) separated by distance X measured from the center points of the polymer networks.

FIG. 14 shows a table showing the mean of the measured values and standard error of the mean, for different spots in Example 2.

FIG. 15 is a graphic representation of the mean of the measured values obtained by the array of Section 7.2.1.

FIG. 16 is a graphic representation of the mean of the measured values obtained by an array of Section 7.2.2.

5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

5.1. Three-Dimensional Polymer Networks

The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure comprise a crosslinked polymer, e.g., a polymer according to Rendl et al., 2011, Langmuir 27:6116-6123 or US 2008/0293592, the contents of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties herein. The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure further comprise one or more channels and can optionally further comprise one or more probes immobilized on the network.

Polymers that can be used to make the networks are described in Section 5.1.1. Cross-linkers than can be used to make the networks are described in Section 5.1.2. Features of the one or more channels are described in Section 5.1.3. Probes that can be immobilized on the networks are described in Section 5.1.4.

5.1.1. Polymers

The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure can comprise a crosslinked homopolymer, copolymer, mixtures of homopolymers, mixtures of copolymers, or mixtures of one or more homopolymers and one or more copolymers. The term “polymer” as used herein includes both homopolymers and/or copolymers. The term “copolymer” as used herein includes polymers polymerized from two or more types of monomers (e.g., bipolymers, terpolymers, quaterpolymers, etc.). Copolymers include alternating copolymers, periodic copolymers, statistical copolymers, random copolymers, block copolymers, linear copolymers and branched copolymers. The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure can comprise any combination of the foregoing types of polymers. Reagents and methods for making such polymers are known in the art (see, e.g., Ravve, A., Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Springer Science+Business Media, 1995; Cowie, J. M. G., Polymers: Chemistry & Physics of Modern Materials, 2^(nd) Edition, Chapman & Hall, 1991; Chanda, M., Introduction to Polymer Science and Chemistry: A Problem-Solving Approach, 2^(nd) Edition, CRC Press, 2013; Nicholson, J. W., The Chemistry of Polymers, 4^(th) Edition, RSC Publishing, 2012; the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety).

Preferred polymers are hydrophilic and/or contain hydrophilic groups. The polymer can be water soluble. In an embodiment, the polymer is a copolymer that has been polymerized from two or more species of monomers selected to provide a desired level of water solubility. For example, water solubility of a copolymer can be controlled by varying the amount of a charged monomer, e.g., sodium 4-vinylsulfonate, used to make the copolymer.

The three-dimensional network of the disclosure can comprise a copolymer that has been polymerized from one, two, three, or more than three species of monomers, wherein one, two, three or more than three of the species of monomers have a polymerizable group independently selected from an acrylate group (e.g., acrylate, methacrylate, methyl methacrylate, hydroxyethyl methacrylate, ethyl acrylate, 2-phenyl acrylate), an acrylamide group (e.g., acrylamide, methacrylamide, dimethylacrylamide, ethylacrylamide), an itaconate group (e.g., itaconate, 4-methyl itaconate, dimethyl itaconate) and a styrene group (e.g. styrene, 4-methyl styrene, 4-ethoxystyrene). Preferred polymerizable groups are acrylate, methacrylate, ethacrylate, 2-phenyl acrylate, acrylamide, methacrylamide, itaconate, and styrene. In some embodiments, one of the monomers used to make the copolymer is charged, e.g., sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate.

The polymer used to make a network of the disclosure can comprise at least one, at least two, or more than two cross-linker groups per molecule. A cross-linker group is a group that covalently bonds the polymer molecules of the network to each other and, optionally, to probes and/or a substrate. Copolymers that have been polymerized from two or more monomers (e.g., monomers having a polymerizable group independently selected from those described in the preceding paragraph), at least one of which comprises a cross-linker, are suitable for making a three-dimensional network of the disclosure. Exemplary cross-linkers are described in Section 5.1.2. A preferred monomer comprising a cross-linker is methacryloyloxybenzophenone (MABP) (see FIG. 10).

In a preferred embodiment, the copolymer is a bipolymer or a terpolymer comprising a cross-linker. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the copolymer comprises p(Dimethyacryamide co Methacryloyl-Benzophenone co Sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate) (see FIG. 10).

5.1.2. Cross-Linkers

Crosslinking reagents (or cross-linkers) suitable for making the crosslinks in the three-dimensional networks include those activated by ultraviolet light (e.g., long wave UV light), visible light, and heat. Exemplary cross-linkers activated by UV light include benzophenone, thioxanthones (e.g., thioxanthen-9-one, 10-methylphenothiazine) and benzoin ethers (e.g., benzoin methyl ether, benzoin ethyl ether). Exemplary cross-linkers activated by visible light include ethyl eosin, eosin Y, rose bengal, camphorquinone and erythirosin. Exemplary cross-linkers activated by heat include 4,4′ azobis(4-cyanopentanoic) acid, and 2,2-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl) propane] dihydrochloride, and benzoyl peroxide. Other cross-linkers known in the art, e.g., those which are capable of forming radicals or other reactive groups upon being irradiated, may also be used.

5.1.3. Channels

The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure contain one or more channels.

As used herein, a “channel” is an elongated passage in a network that (1) is substantially straight, and (2) in the hydrated state of the network, has a minimum cross-section that is at least 500 nm and a length that is at least five times, and preferably at least ten times, the minimum cross-section of the passage. For example, the length of the channel can be 5 to 15 times, 5 to 10 times, or 10 to 15 times the minimum cross-section of the channel. A channel that is “substantially straight” is one which extends from a point of nucleation in one direction without changing direction more than 45 degrees in any direction, i.e., the X, Y or Z direction.

The “hydrated state of the network” means that the network is at equilibrium with respect to water absorption, i.e., it absorbs in aqueous solution as much water as it emits.

Channels can allow access to the interior of the network. Although channels can have a relatively large channel cross-section, the network can remain mechanically stable because the mesh size of the network can be significantly smaller than the channel cross-section. The channels can form a sort of highway, through which analytes can enter quickly into the interior of the network. The transport of the analytes can be effected in the channel by diffusion and/or convection.

The channels can extend from a surface or near the surface of the network into the interior of the network. For example, the one or more channels can extend from a point that is less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8 microns, less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5 microns, less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns, less than 1 micron from the surface of the network, or extends into the interior from a point on the surface of the network. The network can contain a plurality of channels (e.g., 2 to 100, 2 to 50, 2 to 25, 2 to 10, 10 to 50, 10 to 25, or 25 to 50), each of which can extend from a surface or near a surface of the network into the interior of the network. In preferred embodiments, the network contains 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50 channels, or a number of channels ranging between any two of the foregoing values (e.g., 10 to 50, 20 to 40, 30 to 50, 10 to 20, 20 to 30, 30 to 40, or 40 to 50 channels). In a specific preferred embodiment, the network contains 10 to 50 channels.

In some embodiments, the length of at least one channel is 10 to 100%, 10% to 90%, 10% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 10% to 60%, 10% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 10% to 15%, 10% to 20%, 10% to 25%, 10 to 30%, 15% to 20%, 15% to 25%, 15% to 30%, 20 to 25%, or 25% to 30% of the largest dimension of the network. In preferred embodiments, the length of at least one channel is approximately 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% or 50% of the largest dimension of the network, and in some embodiments has a length ranging between any pair of the foregoing embodiments (e.g., 10% to 50%, 10% to 30%, 30% to 50%, 10% to 20%, 20% to 30%, 30% to 40%, or 40% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network). In a specific preferred embodiment, the length is 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network.

In some embodiments, the network comprises at least one channel having a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times, at least 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20 times the mesh size (e.g., 5 to 10 times, 5 to 15 times, 5 to 20 times, 5 to 25 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 15 to 20 times, 15 to 25 times, 15 to 30 times, 20 to 25 times, 20 to 30 times, or 25 to 30 times the network's mesh size). In preferred embodiments, the network comprises at least one channel having a minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the mesh size. This ensures a high stability of the polymer network, and can also prevent network penetration and binding by undesirable larger molecules or components in a sample.

The network can have a mesh size (measured in the hydrated state of the network) of, for example, 5 to 75 nm (e.g., 10 to 20 nm, 10 to 30 nm, 10 to 40 nm, 10 to 50 nm, 20 to 30 nm, 20 to 40 nm, 20 to 50 nm, 30 to 40 nm, 30 to 50 nm, or 40 to 50 nm).

The networks of the disclosure can comprise a plurality of channels (e.g., 2 to 100, 2 to 50, 2 to 25, 2 to 10, 10 to 50, 10 to 25, or 25 to 50), and each channel can independently have one or more of the features described in this section. In some embodiments, the majority of the channels have one or more features described in this section. In a specific preferred embodiment, the network contains 10 to 50 channels that each have one or more of the features described in this section.

Preferred three-dimensional networks contain a plurality of channels that converge at a point located within the network, and are arranged such that, starting from the surface of the network towards the interior, the lateral distance between the channels decreases. In some embodiments, a plurality of channels extend approximately radially away from a point situated in the interior of the network. In some embodiments, the three-dimensional network contains multiple pluralities of channels (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 pluralities of channels), each plurality converging at a different point within the network.

The presence of a channel in a network can be verified using the following procedure:

The network is brought into contact with an aqueous liquid at room temperature, for example, in a bowl. The liquid contains a plurality of nanoparticles which are larger than the mesh size of the network and smaller than the minimum cross-section of the channel. Thus, nanoparticles can enter the channel and spread along the channel. Without being bound by theory, it is believed that this can occur due to the Brownian molecular motion and/or convection through the liquid in the channel. Such nanoparticles are known as quantum dots. They can, for example, have a diameter of about 10 nanometers.

An incubation period is selected so that the network in the liquid is completely hydrated, i.e., that the network on average takes the same amount of water as it releases. The incubation period can be, for example, one hour. The penetration of the nanoparticles in the channel can be accelerated by setting in motion the network and/or the liquid during the incubation, for example, by vibrating the network and/or liquid, preferably by means of ultrasonic waves.

After completion of the incubation, the liquid is separated from the network, for example, by draining the liquid from the bowl or taking the network out of the bowl.

Then, the hydrated network is frozen, for example, by means of liquid nitrogen. Thereafter, the frozen network can be cut with the aid of a cryomicrotome along mutually parallel cutting planes into thin slices. The cutting planes are arranged transversely to the longitudinal extension of the channel and penetrate the channel. The cutting is preferably carried out using a liquid nitrogen-cooled diamond blade. The thickness of the slices can be, for example, about 100 nm or 200 nm.

With the aid of a microscope, the nanoparticles disposed in the disks obtained by cutting the frozen network are located. The nanoparticles can be fluorescent and optically highlighted so that they can be better distinguished from the network, if necessary. The locating of the nanoparticles can be done using a suitable software with image processing methods. To examine the disks, preferably a confocal microscope laser scanning microscope with fluorescence optics or an electron microscope is used.

The geometry and/or position information of the nanoparticles obtained in this manner may be, with the aid of a computer, used to make a three-dimensional geometric model of distribution of the nanoparticles in the network. The model can then be used to determine whether the arrangement of the nanoparticles in the network comprises at least one substantially straight region whose cross-section is in no place smaller than 500 nm and whose length corresponds at least to the five-fold of its smallest cross-section. If this condition is fulfilled it is determined that the network comprises at least one channel.

Alternatively, the three-dimensional distribution of the nanoparticles can be determined in the network by means of micro-3D X-ray computer tomography.

5.1.4. Probes

A probe immobilized on the network of the disclosure can be a biomolecule or a molecule that binds a biomolecule, e.g., a partner of a specifically interacting system of complementary binding partners (receptor/ligand). For example, probes can comprise nucleic acids and their derivatives (such as RNA, DNA, locked nucleic acids (LNA), and peptide nucleic acids (PNA)), proteins, peptides, polypeptides and their derivatives (such as glucosamine, antibodies, antibody fragments, and enzymes), lipids (e.g., phospholipids, fatty acids such as arachidonic acid, monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides), carbohydrates, enzyme inhibitors, enzyme substrates, antigens, and epitopes. Probes can also comprise larger and composite structures such as liposomes, membranes and membrane fragments, cells, cell lysates, cell fragments, spores, and microorganisms.

A specifically interacting system of complementary bonding partners can be based on, for example, the interaction of a nucleic acid with a complementary nucleic acid, the interaction of a PNA with a nucleic acid, or the enzyme/substrate, receptor/ligand, lectin/sugar, antibody/antigen, avidin/biotin or streptavidin/biotin interaction.

Nucleic acid probes can be a DNA or an RNA, for example, an oligonucleotide or an aptamer, an LNA, PNA, or a DNA comprising a methacyrl group at the 5′ end (5′ Acrydite™) Oligonucleotide probes can be, for example, 12 to 30, 14 to 30, 14 to 25, 14 to 20, 15 to 30, 15 to 25, 15 to 20, 16 to 30, 16 to 25, 16 to 20, 15 to 40, 15 to 45, 15 to 50, 15 to 60, 20 to 55, 18 to 60, 20 to 50, 30 to 90, 20 to 100, 20 to 60, 40 to 80, 40 to 100, 20 to 120, 20 to 40, 40 to 60, 60 to 80, 80 to 100, 100 to 120 or 12 to 150 nucleotides long. In preferred embodiments, the oligonucleotide probe is 15 to 60 nucleotides in length.

When using a nucleic acid probe, all or only a portion of the probe can be complementary to the target sequence. The portion of the probe complementary to the target sequence is preferably at least 12 nucleotides in length, and more preferably at least 15, at least 18 or at least 20 nucleotides in length. For nucleic acid probes of greater length than 40 or 50 nucleotides, the portion of the probe complementary to the target sequence can be at least 25, at least 30 or at least 35 nucleotides in length.

The antibody can be, for example, a polyclonal, monoclonal, or chimeric antibody or an antigen binding fragment thereof (i.e., “antigen-binding portion”) or single chain thereof, fusion proteins comprising an antibody, and any other modified configuration of the immunoglobulin molecule that comprises an antigen recognition site, including, for example without limitation, single chain (scFv) and domain antibodies (e.g., human, camelid, or shark domain antibodies), maxibodies, minibodies, intrabodies, diabodies, triabodies, tetrabodies, vNAR and bis-scFv (see e.g., Hollinger and Hudson, 2005, Nature Biotech 23:1126-1136). An antibody includes an antibody of any class, such as IgG, IgA, or IgM (or sub-class thereof), and the antibody need not be of any particular class. Depending on the antibody amino acid sequence of the constant domain of its heavy chains, immunoglobulins can be assigned to different classes. There are five major classes of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, and several of these may be further divided into subclasses (isotypes), e.g., IgG₁, IgG₂, IgG₃, IgG₄, IgA₁ and IgA₂. “Antibody” also encompasses any of each of the foregoing antibody/immunoglobulin types.

Three-dimensional networks of the disclosure can comprise a single species of probe or more than one species of probe (e.g., 2, 3, 4, or 5 or more species). Three-dimensional networks can comprise more than one species of probe for the same target (e.g., antibodies binding different epitopes of the same target) and/or comprise probes that bind multiple targets.

The networks can comprise a labeled (e.g., fluorescently labeled) control probe molecule that can be used, for example, to measure the amount probe present in the network.

The probes can be distributed throughout the network (e.g., on a surface and the interior of a network). Preferably, at least one probe is spaced away from the surface of the network and adjoins at least one channel. A probe so located is then directly accessible for analyte molecules or analyte components through the channel. In some embodiments, a majority of the probes are located in the interior of the network.

The one or more probes can be immobilized on the network covalently or non-covalently. For example, a probe can be crosslinked to the crosslinked polymer or a probe can be non-covalently bound to the network (such as by binding to a molecule covalently bound to the network). In a preferred embodiment, one or more probes are crosslinked to the crosslinked polymer. In some embodiments, a majority of the probes are covalently bound in the interior of the network (e.g., such that at least a portion of the probes adjoin a channel).

5.2. Arrays

The three-dimensional networks of the disclosure can be positioned (e.g., deposited) on a substrate, and are preferably immobilized on a substrate (e.g., by covalent crosslinks between the network and the substrate). A plurality of networks can be immobilized on a substrate to form an array useful, for example, as a biochip.

Suitable substrates include organic polymers, e.g., cycloolefin copolymers (COCs), polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA, Plexiglas®). Ticona markets an example of a suitable COC under the trade name Topas®. Inorganic materiels (e.g., metal, glass) can also be used as a substrate. Such substrates can be coated with organic molecules to allow for crosslinks between the network and a surface of the substrate. For example, inorganic surfaces can be coated with self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). SAMs can themselves be completely unreactive and thus comprise or consist of, for example, pure alkyl silanes. Other substrates can also be suitable for crosslinking to the three-dimensional network provided they are able to enter into stable bonds with organic molecules during free-radical processes (e.g., organoboron compounds).

The substrate can be rigid or flexible. In some embodiments, the substrate is in the shape of a plate (e.g., a rectangular plate, a square plate, a circular disk, etc.). For example, the substrate can comprise a microwell plate, and the three-dimensional networks can be positioned in the wells of the plate.

The individual networks can be positioned at distinct spots on a surface of the substrate, e.g., in a matrix comprising a plurality of columns and rows. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 11, the networks are located at 36 spots arranged in six columns and six rows. Arrays having different numbers of rows and columns, the number of each of which can be independently selected, are contemplated (e.g., 2 to 64 columns and 2 to 64 rows). The columns can be separated by a distance X and the rows can be separated by a distance Y (for example, as shown in FIG. 12) so as to form a grid of spots on which the individual networks can be located. X and Y can be selected so that the networks, located at the spots of the grid, do not contact each other in the dehydrated state and do not contact each other in the hydrated state. The dimensions X and Y can be the same or different. In some embodiments, X and Y are the same. In some embodiments, X and Y are different. In some embodiments, X and Y are independently selected from distances of at least about 500 μm (e.g., 500 μm to 5 mm, 500 μm to 4 mm, 500 μm to 3 mm, 500 μm to 2 mm, or 500 μm to 1 mm). In some embodiments, X and Y are both about 500 μm. In other embodiments, X and Y are both 500 μm.

In some embodiments, substrate is band-shaped (for example, as shown in FIG. 13). The networks can be arranged as a single row extending in the longitudinal direction of a band-shaped organic surface, or can be arranged as multiple rows extending in the longitudinal direction of the band-shaped surface. The rows and columns in such band-shaped arrays can have grid dimensions X and Y as described above.

The individual networks can each cover an area of the surface of the array that is circular or substantially circular. Typically, the diameter of the area on the surface of the array covered by the individual networks (i.e., the spot diameter) is 80 μm to 1000 μm. In various embodiments, the spot diameter is 80 μm, 100 μm, 120 μm, 140 μm, 160 μm, 180 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm, or 1000 μm, or selected from a range bounded by any two of the foregoing embodiments, e.g., 80 μm to 200 μm, 100 μm to 120 μm, 120 μm to 140 μm, 120 μm to 180 μm, 140 μm to 160 μm, 160 μm to 180 μm, 180 μm to 200 μm, 120 μm to 200 μm, 100 μm to 400 μm, 160 μm to 600 μm, or 120 μm to 700 μm, and so on and so forth. In a preferred embodiment, the diameter ranges from 100 μm to 200 μm or a subrange thereof.

The arrays of the disclosure typically have at least 8 individual three-dimensional networks. In certain aspects, the arrays have at least 16, at least 24, at least 48, at least 96, at least 128, at least 256, at least 512, or at least 1024 individual three-dimensional networks. In some embodiments, the arrays of the disclosure have 24, 48, 96, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096 or 8192 individual networks, or have a number of three-dimensional networks selected from a range bounded any two of the foregoing embodiments, e.g., from 8 to 128, 8 to 512, 24 to 8192, 24 to 4096, 48 to 2048, 96 to 512, 128 to 1024, 24 to 1024, 48 to 512, 96 to 1024, or 128 to 512 three-dimensional networks, and so on and so forth. In a preferred embodiment, number of three-dimensional networks on an array ranges from 8 to 1024. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the number of three-dimensional networks on an array ranges from 25 to 400.

The individual networks which comprise the arrays of the disclosure can have identical or different probes (e.g., each network can have a unique set of probes, multiple networks can have the same set of probes and other networks can have a different set or sets of probes, or all of networks can have the same set of probes). For example, networks arranged in the same row of a matrix can comprise the same probes and the networks arranged in different rows of the matrix can have different probes.

Typically, the individual networks on an array vary by no more than 20%, no more than 15%, no more than 10% or no more than 5% from one another by spot diameter and/or network volume.

In some embodiments, the arrays comprise one or more individual networks (e.g., spots on an array) with one or more control oligonucleotides or probe molecules. The control oligonucleotides can be labelled, e.g., fluorescently labelled, for use as a spatial control (for spatially orienting the array) and/or a quantifying the amount of probe molecules bound to the networks, for example, when washing and reusing an array of the disclosure (i.e., as a “reusability control”). The spatial and reusability control probes (which can be the same or different probes) are referred to in Section 7.2 as a “landing light”, where the same probe is used for both purposes.

The same spot on the array or a different spot on the array can further include an unlabelled probe that is complementary to a known target. When used in a hybridization assay, determining the signal strength of hybridization of the unlabelled probe to the labelled target can determine the efficiency of the hybridization reaction. When an individual network (i.e., a spot on an array) is used both as a reusability and/or spatial control and a hybridization control, a different fluorescent moiety can be used to label the target molecule than the fluorescent moiety of the reusability control or spatial control probes.

In some embodiments, the arrays of the disclosure can be reused at least 5 times, at least 10 times, at least 20 times, at least 30 times, at least 40 times, or at least 50 times (e.g., 5 to 20 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 50 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 30 times, 20 to 40 times, or 40 to 50 times, preferably comprising reusing the array 10 to 50 times). The array can be washed with a salt solution under denaturating conditions (e.g., low salt concentration and high temperature). For example, the array can be washed with a 1-10 mM phosphate buffer at 80-90° C. between uses. The temperature of the wash can be selected based upon the length (Tm) of the target:probe hybrid.

The integrity of an array can be determined by a “reusability control” probe. The reusability control probe can be fluorescently labeled or can be detected by hybridization to a fluorescently labeled complementary nucleic acid. The fluorescent label of a fluorescently labeled reusability control probe may be bleached by repeated excitation, before the integrity of the nucleic acid is compromised; in such cases any further reuses can include detection of hybridization to a fluorescently labeled complementary nucleic acid as a control. Typically, an array of the invention is stable for at least 6 months.

In various embodiments, a fluorescently labeled reusability control probe retains at least 99%, 95% 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50% of its initial fluorescence signal strength after 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 uses. Preferably, the reusability control probe retains least 75% of its fluorescence signal strength after 5 or 10 uses. An array can continue to be reused until the reusability control probe retains at least 50% of its fluorescence signal strength, for example after 20, 30, 40 or 50 reuses. The fluorescent signal strength of the control probe can be tested between every reuse, every other reuse, every third reuse, every fourth reuse, every fifth reuse, every sixth reuse, every seventh reuse, every eighth reuse, every ninth reuse, every tenth reuse, or a combination of the above. For example, the signal strength can be tested periodically between 5 or 10 reuses initially and the frequency of testing increased with the number of reuses such that it is tested after each reuse after a certain number (e.g., 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50) uses. In some embodiments, the frequency of testing averages once per 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5 or 10 uses, or averages within a range bounded between any two of the foregoing values, e.g., once per 1-2 uses, once per 1-1.5 uses, once per 1-3 uses, or once per 1.5-3 uses.

It is noted that the nomenclature of “spatial control”, “reusability control” and “hybridization control” is included for convenience and reference purposes and is not intended to connote a requirement that the probes referred to “spatial control”, “reusability control” and “hybridization control” be used as such.

5.3. Processes for Making Three-Dimensional Polymer Networks

In one aspect, the processes of the disclosure for making three-dimensional polymer networks comprise (a) exposing a mixture comprising an aqueous salt solution, a polymer, a cross-linker and, optionally, one or more probes to salt crystal forming conditions, (b) exposing the mixture to crosslinking conditions to crosslink the polymer for form a crosslinked polymer network, and (c) contacting the crosslinked polymer network with a solvent to dissolve the salt crystals and form one or more channels.

The processes can further comprise a step of forming the mixture by combining an aqueous salt solution, a polymer, a cross-linker and, optionally, one or more probes, and/or further comprise a step of applying the mixture to a substrate (e.g., a substrate described in Section 5.2) prior to exposing the mixture to salt forming conditions. If the polymer being used has a pre-attached cross-linker (e.g., when using a copolymer polymerized from a monomer comprising a cross-linker), the step of forming the mixture can comprise combining an aqueous salt solution with the polymer and, optionally, one or more probes.

The channels formed by dissolution of the salt crystals can have one or more of the features described in Section 5.1.3.

The mixture can be applied to a substrate prior to exposing the mixture to salt forming conditions for example, by spraying the mixture onto a surface of the substrate (e.g., at 1024 sites on the surface). The mixture can be applied to the surface using a DNA chip spotter or inkjet printer, for example. In a preferred embodiment, the mixture is sprayed using an inkjet printer. This permits a simple and rapid application of the mixture to a large number of spots on the substrate. The spots can be arranged, for example, in the form of a matrix in several rows and/or columns. Preferably, the salt content in the mixture during printing is below the solubility limit so that the mixture does not crystallize in the printing head of the printer. The volume of mixture applied at individual spots can be, for example, 100 pl, 200 pl, 300 pl, 400 pl, 500 pl, 750 pl, 1 nl, 2 nl, 3 nl, 4 nl, or 5 nl, or can be selected from a range bounded by any two of the foregoing values (e.g., 100 pl to 5 nl, 100 pl to 1 nl, 300 pl to 1 nl, 200 pl to 750 nl, 100 pl to 500 pl, 200 pl to 2 nl, 500 pl to 2 nl 1 nl to 2 nl, and so on and so forth). In preferred embodiments, the spot volume is 200 pl to 4 nl.

The diameter of the individual spots will depend on the composition of the mixture, the volume of the mixture applied, and the surface chemistry of the substrate. Spot diameters typically range between 80 μm to 1000 μm and can be obtained by varying the foregoing parameters. In various embodiments, the spot diameters are 80 μm, 100 μm, 120 μm, 140 μm, 160 μm, 180 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm, or 1000 μm, or selected from a range bounded by any two of the foregoing embodiments, e.g., 80 μm to 200 μm, 100 μm to 120 μm, 120 μm to 140 μm, 120 μm to 180 μm, 140 μm to 160 μm, 160 μm to 180 μm, 180 μm to 200 μm, 120 μm to 200 μm, 100 μm to 400 μm, 160 μm to 600 μm, or 120 μm to 700 μm, and so on and so forth. In a preferred embodiment, the diameter ranges from 100 μm to 200 μm or a subrange thereof.

Suitable polymers, cross-linkers, and probes that can be used in the processes of the disclosure are described in Sections 5.1.1, 5.1.2, and 5.1.4, respectively. In some embodiments, the polymer used in the processes has at least one cross-linker group per polymer molecule. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer has at least two cross-linker groups per molecule. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymer has at least two photoreactive cross-linker groups per molecule. In these embodiments, separate polymer and cross-linker molecules are not needed.

Suitable salts that can be included in the mixture are described in Section 5.3.1. Suitable salt forming conditions are described in Section 5.3.2. Suitable crosslinking conditions are described in Section 5.3.3. Suitable solvents for dissolving the salt crystals are described in Section 5.3.4.

5.3.1. Salt

The salt can be selected for its compatibility with one or more probes. Ideally, the salt has one or more of the following characteristics, (i) the salt is not toxic to the probes (e.g., the salt does not denature the probes), (ii) the salt does not react chemically with the probes, (iii) the salt does not attack fluorophores, such as cyanine dyes, which are suitable for the optical marking of probes, (iv) the salt does not react with analytes, detection molecules, and/or binding partners bonded thereto, and/or (v) the salt forms needle-shaped crystals.

In a preferred embodiment, the salt solution comprises monovalent cations. The mixture can comprise disodium hydrogen phosphate and/or sodium dihydrogen phosphate which, in aqueous solution, releases Na⁺ cations and phosphate ions PO₄ ³⁻. Sodium phosphate is readily soluble in water and forms colorless crystals.

In a particularly preferred embodiment, the mixture comprises dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K₂HPO₄) and/or potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH₂PO₄). These salts are excellently soluble in water and can therefore form a correspondingly large number of needle-shaped salt crystals in the mixture.

5.3.2. Salt Crystal Forming Conditions

Salt crystal forming conditions can comprise forming in the mixture at least one salt crystal, preferably a needle-shaped salt crystal, by dehydrating the mixture or cooling the mixture until the relative salt content in the mixture increases to above the solubility limit, meaning that the mixture is supersaturated with the salt. This promotes the formation of salt crystals from a crystallization germ located in the volume of the mixture towards the surface of the mixture.

The mixture can be dehydrated by heating the mixture, exposing the mixture to a vacuum, and/or reducing the humidity of the atmosphere surrounding the mixture.

The mixture can be heated by placing the mixture on a heated substrate or surface (e.g., between about 50° C. to about 70° C.), heating the substrate or surface on which the mixture has been placed (e.g., to between about 50° C. to about 70° C.), and/or contacting the mixture with a hot gas (e.g., air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide having a temperature that is higher than the temperature of the mixture) such that water is evaporated from the mixture. The contacting with the hot gas can, for example, take place by placing the mixture in a heating oven. During the transportation to the heating oven, the mixture is preferably kept moist, in particular at a relative humidity of above 75%. As a result of this, an uncontrolled formation of salt crystals during the transportation of the mixture to the heating oven is counteracted. This permits the formation of longer, needle-shaped salt crystals in the heating oven. By heating the mixture it is also possible to activate thermally activatable cross-linkers, if present, and crosslink the polymer thereby.

In some embodiments, the temperature of the heated substrate and/or air used to dehydrate the mixture is 20° C. or more above the temperature of the mixture before heating the mixture, but less than 100° C.

The mixture can be cooled by placing the mixture on a cooled substrate or surface (e.g., between about 5° C. to about 15° C.), cooling the substrate or surface on which the mixture has been placed (e.g., to between about 5° C. to about 15° C.) and/or bringing it into contact with a cold gas (e.g., air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide having a temperature that is lower than the temperature of the mixture). When cooled, the temperature-dependent solubility limit of the salt in the mixture decreases until the mixture is ultimately supersaturated with the salt. The formation one or more salt crystals, preferably needle-shaped, is promoted by this. In some embodiments, the mixture is cooled by incubating it in a cold chamber with low humidity (e.g., temperatures between 0° C. and 10° C., relative humidity <40%)

The temperature in the mixture is preferably held above the dew point of the ambient air surrounding the mixture during the formation of the one or more salt crystals. This prevents the mixture becoming diluted with water condensed from the ambient air, which could lead to a decrease in the relative salt content in the mixture.

5.3.3. Crosslinking Conditions

The crosslinking conditions can be selected based upon the type of cross-linker used. For example, when using a cross-linker activated by ultraviolet light (e.g., benzophenone, a thioxanthone or a benzoin ether), the crosslinking conditions can comprise exposing the mixture to ultraviolet (UV) light. In some embodiments, UV light having a wavelength from about 250 nm to about 360 nm is used (e.g., 260±20 nm or 355±20 nm). The use of lower energy/longer wavelength UV light (e.g., 360 nm UV light vs. 254 nm UV light) can require longer exposure times. When using a cross-linker activated by visible light (e.g., ethyl eosin, eosin Y, rose bengal, camphorquinone or erythirosin), the crosslinking conditions can comprise exposing the mixture to visible light. When using a thermally activated cross-linker (e.g., 4,4′ azobis(4-cyanopentanoic) acid, and 2,2-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl) propane] dihydrochloride, or benzoyl peroxide), the crosslinking conditions can comprise exposing the mixture to heat.

The length and intensity of the crosslinking conditions can be selected to effect crosslinking of polymer molecules to other polymer molecules, crosslinking of polymer molecules to probe molecules (if present), and crosslinking of polymer molecules to substrate molecules or organic molecules present on the substrate (if present). The length and intensity of crosslinking conditions for a mixture containing probes can be determined experimentally to balance robustness of immobilization and nativity of probe molecules, for example.

5.3.4. Salt Crystal Dissolution

After crosslinking the polymer, the one or more salt crystals can be dissolved in the solvent in such a way that at least one channel is formed in the network, said channel extending starting from the surface and/or near the surface of the network into the interior of the network. Advantageously, after the salt crystals have dissolved in a solvent, a hollow, elongated channel is produced in the place where the salt crystal was, according to the principle of the “lost” form. The channels allow analytes to penetrate through the channel into the interior of the network and specifically bind a probe located in the interior of the network. When using an array produced by the method of the disclosure as a biological sensor, a high measurement accuracy and high measurement dynamic are permitted.

The solvent for dissolving the one or more salt crystals can be chosen in such a way that it is compatible to the polymer and probes, if present (e.g., the solvent can be chosen such that it does not dissolve the polymer and probes). Preferably, the solvent used is a water based buffer, such as diluted phosphate buffer. Methanol, ethanol, propanol or a mixture of these liquids can be added to the buffer to facilitate the removal of unbound polymer from the network.

After the removal of the salt crystals the network can collapse due to drying and can be rehydrated. Drying the network has advantages for shipping and stabilization of probe biomolecules.

5.3.5. Methods of Using the Three-Dimensional Networks

The networks and arrays of the disclosure can be used to determine the presence or absence of an analyte in a sample, preferably a liquid sample. The disclosure therefore provides methods for determining whether an analyte is present in a sample or plurality of samples, comprising contacting a network or array of the disclosure comprising probe molecules that are capable of binding to the analyte with the sample or plurality of samples and detecting binding of the analyte to the probe molecules, thereby determining whether the analyte is present in the sample or plurality of samples. When arrays comprising different species of probes capable of binding different species of analyte are used in the methods, the presence of the different species of analytes can be determined by detecting the binding of the different species of analytes to the probes. In some embodiments, the methods further comprise a step of quantifying the amount of analyte or analytes bound to the array.

The analyte can be, for example, a nucleic acid, such as a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicon. In some embodiments, the PCR amplicon is amplified from a biological or environmental sample (e.g., blood, serum, plasma, tissue, cells, saliva, sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, milk, tears, stool, sweat, semen, whole cells, cell constituent, cell smear, or an extract or derivative thereof). In some embodiments, the nucleic acid is labeled (e.g., fluorescently labeled).

An analyte placed on the surface of the network can penetrate into the interior of the network through the channel in order to specifically bind to a probe (e.g., a biomolecule) covalently bonded there to the polymer. When using the arrays of the disclosure with the networks immobilized thereon as biological sensor, a high measurement accuracy and also a high measurement dynamic is permitted.

The networks and arrays of the disclosure can be regenerated after use as a biosensor and can be used several times (e.g., at 5 times, at least 10 times, at least 20 times, at least 30 times, at least 40 times, or at least 50 times). If the probe molecules are DNA, this can be achieved, for example, by heating the network(s) in an 1× phosphate buffered saline to a temperature between 80° C. and 90° C. for about 10 minutes. Then, the phosphate buffered saline can be exchanged for a new phosphate buffered saline to wash the denatured DNA out of the network(s). If the probe molecules of the network(s) or array are antigens the network(s) or array can be regenerated by bringing the network(s) into contact with 0.1 N NaOH for about 10 minutes. Then, the 0.1 N NaOH can be exchanged for a phosphate buffered saline to wash the antigens out of the network. Thus, some embodiments of the methods of using the networks and arrays of the disclosure comprise using a network or array that has been washed prior to contact with a sample or a plurality of samples.

5.4. Applications of Arrays of the Disclosure

Because the arrays of the invention achieve economical determination of the qualitative and quantitative presence of nucleic acids in a sample, it has immediate application to problems relating to health and disease in human and non-human animals.

In these applications a preparation containing a target molecule is derived or extracted from biological or environmental sources according to protocols known in the art. The target molecules can be derived or extracted from cells and tissues of all taxonomic classes, including viruses, bacteria and eukaryotes, prokaryotes, protista, plants, fungi, and animals of all phyla and classes. The animals can be vertebrates, mammals, primates, and especially humans. Blood, serum, plasma, tissue, cells, saliva, sputum, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, milk, tears, stool, sweat, semen, whole cells, cell constituent, and cell smears are suitable sources of target molecules.

The target molecules are preferably nucleic acids amplified (e.g., by PCR) from any of the foregoing sources).

The arrays of the invention can include probes that are useful to detect pathogens of humans or non-human animals. Such probes include oligonucleotides complementary at least in part to bacterial, viral or fungal targets, or any combinations of bacterial, viral and fungal targets.

The arrays of the invention can include probes useful to detect gene expression in human or non-human animal cells, e.g., gene expression associated with a disease or disorder such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, or metabolic disease for the purpose of diagnosing a subject, monitoring treatment of a subject or prognosis of a subject's outcome. Gene expression information can then track disease progression or regression, and such information can assist in monitoring the success or changing the course of an initial therapy.

6. EXEMPLARY PROTOCOLS

The following exemplary protocols, which refer to the reference numbers provided in the figures, are within the scope of the disclosure and can be used in conjunction with the polymers, cross-linkers and probes of Sections 5.1.1, 5.1.2 and 5.1.4, respectively. Further useful polymers (including co-polymers) and cross-linker groups for use in the following methods are described in Rendl et al., 2011, Langmuir 27:6116-6123 and in US 2008/0293592, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein. In one embodiment, a polymer mixture according to Section 7.1 is used.

6.1. Exemplary Protocol 1

A plate with an organic surface (2) is placed on a heated holder (6). Temperatures between 50° C. and 70° C. are suitable. A mixture (5) containing a polymer (3), probe biomolecules (1) and an aqueous salt solution is spotted on the organic surface (2) using a standard DNA chip spotter (e.g., Scienion, Germany). Volumes of 0.5 to 4 nl are printed on each spot (7) (see, FIG. 2). The liquid of these spots dries almost immediately leading to a very fast nucleation of salt crystals (8). After nucleation, needle-shaped salt crystals can extend from at least one crystallization germ (9) located in the volume of the mixture (5) to the surface (10) of the mixture (5) (see, FIG. 3). After nucleation of the crystals (8) the spots (7) are irradiated in a UV cross-linker immediately with optical UV radiation (11) (see, FIG. 4) such that the probe biomolecules (1) are covalently bonded to the polymer (3), and the polymer (3) is covalently bonded to the organic surface (2) and crosslinked (see, FIG. 5). Care is taken that the dried, crosslinked mixture (5) is not attracting moisture to become liquid again.

The dried, crosslinked mixture (5) is then brought into contact with a solvent (12) for the crystals (8) such that at the places at which the crystals (8) were, channels (13) are formed in the network (15) comprising the polymer (3) and the probe biomolecules (1) (see, FIG. 6). Thereafter, the solvent (12) is removed. The channels (13) can extend from the surface (16) of the network (15) into the interior of the network (15). The solvent (12) in which the salt crystals (8) are dissolved is chosen in such a way that it is compatible to the probe biomolecule (1) and also the polymer (3). Preferably, the solvent (12) used is water based.

6.2. Exemplary Protocol 2

A mixture (5) containing a polymer (3), probe biomolecules (1) and an aqueous salt solution is spotted on an organic surface (2) arranged on a plate using a standard DNA chip spotter (e.g., Scienion, Germany). Volumes of 0.5 to 4 nl are printed on each spot 7 (see, FIG. 2). The plate with the spots (7) on the organic surface (2) is placed on a chilled holder (14) (see, FIG. 7). Temperatures between 5° C. and 15° C. are suitable. The liquid of these spots is cooled down to reach an over saturation of the buffer that almost immediately leads to a nucleation of crystals. After nucleation needle-shaped salt crystals (8) can extend from at least one crystallization germ (9) located in the volume of the mixture (5) to the surface (10) of the mixture (5). After printing these targets are put in an oven (e.g., at 70° C.) for complete drying. After nucleation of the crystals the spots are irradiated in a UV cross-linker immediately with optical UV radiation (11) (see, FIG. 8) such that the probe biomolecules (1) are covalently bonded to the polymer (3), and the polymer (3) is covalently bonded to the organic surface (2) and crosslinked. Care is taken that the dried, crosslinked mixture is not attracting moisture to become liquid again.

The dried, crosslinked mixture (5) is then brought into contact with a solvent (12) to dissolve the crystals (8) such that at the places at which the crystals (8) were, channels (13) are formed in the network (15) comprising the polymer (3) and the probe biomolecules (1). Thereafter, the solvent (12) is removed. The channels (13) can extend from the surface (16) of the network (15) into the interior of the network (15). The solvent (12) in which the salt crystals (8) are dissolved is chosen in such a way that it is compatible with the probe biomolecule (1) and the polymer (3). Preferably, the solvent (12) used is water based.

As can be seen in FIG. 9 a plurality of channels (13) can be formed in the network (15). The channels (13) can extend from the surface (16) of the network (15) to at least one point located within the network (15). The channels (13) can be arranged in such a way that—starting from the surface (16) in the direction of the interior—the lateral distance between the channels (13) decreases.

6.3. Exemplary Protocol 3

A mixture (5) containing a polymer (3), probe biomolecules (1) and an aqueous salt solution is printed on an organic surface (2) of a plate at normal conditions with a humidity ranging from 40-80%, preferably 50-70%. The mixture can be near saturation, 400 mM sodium phosphate, pH 8, for example. Volumes of 0.5 to 4 nl are printed on each spot (7). The moisture content in the print compartment makes sure the spots (7) stay liquid without crystal formation (i.e., no nucleation takes place). The plate is then put in a container, a cardboard box for example. Lids are put on the plate having the organic surface (2) for transport. The plate with the spots (7) on the organic surface (2) is then put in a drying oven or on a hot plate to rapidly cause nucleation such that needle-shaped salt crystals (8) extend from at least one crystallization germ (9) located in the volume of the mixture toward the surface 10 of the mixture (5).

The temperature of the oven/hot plate should be 20° C. or more above the printing temperature. Temperatures above 100° C. are not necessary.

After drying, the mixture is irradiated to crosslink the polymer (3), probe biomolecules (1), and organic surface (2).

The dried, crosslinked mixture (5) is then brought into contact with a solvent (12) such that at the places at which the crystals (8) were, channels (13) are formed in the network (15) comprising the polymer (3) and the probe biomolecules (1). Thereafter, the solvent (12) is removed. The channels (13) can are extend from the surface (16) of the network (15) into the interior of the network (15). The solvent (12) in which the salt crystals (8) are dissolved is chosen in such a way that it is compatible with the probe biomolecules (1) and the polymer (3). Preferably, the solvent (12) used is water based.

6.4. Exemplary Protocol 4

Alternatively, a plate with spots (7) on the organic surface (2) prepared as in exemplary protocol 3 can be cooled to achieve nucleation by putting in a cold chamber with low humidity (e.g., temperatures <10° C., relative humidity <40%). The drying can be performed by reducing the humidity or by applying a vacuum after nucleation has started. After nucleation, needle-shaped salt crystals (8) can extend from at least one crystallization germ (9) located in the volume of the mixture (5) toward the surface (10) of the mixture (5). The plate with the spots (7) on the organic surface (2) is put in an oven at 60°−70° C. for 1 hour to fully dry the spots. The spots (7) are UV irradiated with 1.00 J @ 254 nm in a UV cross-linker, i.e. Stratalinker 2400. To do this, the plate with the spots (7) on the organic surface (2) can be put into the center of the chamber with the shorter side parallel to the door of the chamber. Then, the cover is removed and the cross-linker is started. When machine is finished the array is removed and the cover is replaced.

Alternatively, other UV cross-linkers with the same wavelength (240-270 nm, for example) or longer wavelengths, e.g., 360 nm, can be used.

The mixture (5) is then brought into contact with a solvent (12) to dissolve the crystals (8) such that at the places at which the crystals (8) were, channels (13) are formed in the network (15) comprising the polymer (3) and the probe biomolecules (1). Thereafter, the solvent (12) is removed. The channels (13) can extend from the surface (16) of the network (15) into the interior of the network (15). The solvent (12) in which the salt crystals (8) are dissolved is chosen in such a way that it is compatible with the probe biomolecules (1) the polymer (3). Preferably, the solvent (12) used is water based.

7. EXAMPLES 7.1. Example 1: Formation of a Three-Dimensional Polymer Network with Channels

A 10 mg/ml polymer stock solution is prepared by dissolving 10 mg of the crosslinking polymer poly(dimethylacrylamide) co 5% Methacryloyl-Benzophenone co 2.5% Sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate in 1.0 ml of DNAse free water. This is achieved by vigorous shaking and vortexing for approximately 5 minutes until all the visible polymer is dissolved. The stock solution is then wrapped in foil to protect it from light and placed in a refrigerator overnight to ensure the polymer completely dissolves and to allow the foam to reduce. The polymer has at least two photoreactive groups per molecule.

A mixture comprising the polymer, DNA oligonucleotide probes, and sodium phosphate is made by mixing 10 μl of a 100 μM DNA oligonucleotide stock solution, 5 μl of the 10 mg/ml polymer stock solution (to provide a concentration of polymer in the mixture of 1 mg/ml), and 35 μl of a 500 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 8.

The mixture is used to prepare a three-dimensional network of the invention using the method of any one of Exemplary Protocols 1 through 4.

7.2. Example 2: Use of a Three-Dimensional Polymer Network to Detect Bacteria 7.2.1. Preparation of an Array of the Invention

Oligonucleotides for immobilization were dissolved at a concentration of 20 μM in a 400 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7 containing 1 mg/ml of the photoreactive polymer described in Example 1. Each oligonucleotide had a length of 30-35 nucleotides complementary to the target DNA and a tail of 15 thymidines (for a total oligonucleotide length of 45-50 nucleotides).

The mixture was used to print the following spots on an organic surface of a plate to provide an array:

-   -   LL: So called landing lights. Cy5-labelled DNA oligonucleotide         (0.2 μM), polymer and unlabeled oligonucleotide 19.8 μM to make         up to 20 μM total oligonucleotide concentration.     -   GN: Oligonucleotide specific to gram negative bacteria.     -   GP: Oligonucleotide specific to gram positive bacteria.     -   S.Aure_1: Oligonucleotide specific to Staphylococcus aureus         bacteria.     -   S.Aure_2: Oligonucleotide specific to Staphylococcus aureus         bacteria.     -   E. coli_1: Oligonucleotide specific to Escherichia coli         bacteria.     -   E. coli_2: Oligonucleotide specific to Escherichia coli         bacteria.

In order to avoid the formation of salt crystals on the source plate (i.e., the plate from which the mixture was taken) this plate was kept at ambient temperature (22° C.).

A Greiner 96 well plate with a flat crystal clear bottom with an organic surface was cooled to 10° C. to avoid drying out of the printed spots. Using a Scienion® SciFlex 5 printer with a PDC 90 nozzle 8 drops per spot were printed on the organic surface, resulting in a spot volume of approx. 1.4 nl. The humidity of the printer was kept at 60-65% relative humidity.

After the print the size of the spots was checked by an automated head camera on the print head to assure that no drying in or crystal formation has taken place in the spots. All spots were still wet and have the same size. No crystal formation was visible.

The 96 well plate was then sealed with a lid to avoid drying in and immediately put on a hot plate (70° C.) in a drying oven to perform crystal initiation and drying of the spots.

After 1 hr incubation at 70° C. to ensure proper drying of the spots the plate was irradiated with 1J @ 254 nm in a Stratalinker® 2000.

7.2.2. Preparation of a Control Array

A procedure similar to that described in Section 7.2.1 was used but the target plate was kept at ambient temperature substantially as described by Rendl et al., 2011, Langmuir 27:6116-6123. After the print, some spots showed a reduced size, i.e., some of the spots in random places in the array were dried in and exhibited phase separation immediately after the printing. The plate was then taken out of the printer and taken to the sample drying process as described above with no lid on, upon which further drying in occurred.

7.2.3. Hybridization Assay

Before use the plates were washed in a plate washer for 3 times with 300 μl of wash buffer (100 mM sodium phosphate pH 7) and then the buffer was exchanged to 1 mM sodium phosphate pH 7. The plates were heated for 10 minutes at 90° C. on a heater shaker to extract unbound DNA and polymer. The buffer then was exchanged to 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer using an automated 96 well plate washer.

A mix of 20 ml Cy5-labeled PCR product and 30 ml sodium phosphate buffer (250 mM, pH7) was incubated on the arrays for 10 minutes at 80° C. and 30 minutes at 55° C. on heater shaker. Afterward the plates were washed with 100 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH7 for three times in 96 well plate washer. Plates with buffer were scanned in Sensovation® Flair reader and the spot intensity of the different spots was measured.

7.2.4. Results

8 arrays produced by the method of Section 7.2.1 and 8 arrays produced by the method of Section 7.2.2 were analysed and the data processed in a spreadsheet program. Mean and standard error of the mean (SEM) were calculated and compared. Results are shown in FIGS. 14-16.

8. Example 3: Reusability of a Three-Dimensional Polymer Network Array

Several arrays were prepared according to the procedure described in Section 7.2.1, including a “landing light” spot containing fluorescently labeled oligonucleotides. The arrays were reused in hybridization assays and washed according to the following procedure in between hybridizations:

(a) the arrays were washed three times with 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 7;

(b) the buffer was then exchanged to 1 mM phosphate buffer pH 7; and

(c) the arrays were then heated to 80° C. and washed while hot with 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.

The strength of the fluorescent signal from the landing light spot was determined in between uses. After 10 uses, the fluorescent signal lost less than 25% of its intensity. The arrays were reused until a reference spot hybridized with a reference DNA (internal control) showed a loss of signal of 50%.

9. SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

The present disclosure is exemplified by the specific embodiments below.

1. A three-dimensional network having a surface and an interior comprising (a) a crosslinked polymer, (b) one or more channels, and (c) optionally, probe molecules immobilized in the network, said three-dimensional network optionally covalently attached to the surface of a substrate.

2. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 1, wherein at least one of the one or more channels is characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

-   -   (a) the channel extends into the interior from a point that is         less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8 microns,         less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5 microns,         less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns,         less than 1 micron from the surface of the network or extends         into the interior from a point on the surface of the network,         and preferably extends into the interior from a point less than         5 microns from the surface of the network;     -   (b) the channel has a length that is at least 10%, at least 15%,         at least 20%, or at least 25% of the largest dimension of the         network, and preferably has a length that is 10% to 50% of the         largest dimension of the network;     -   (c) the channel has a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times,         at least 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20 times the         network's mesh size, and preferably has a minimum cross-section         of at least 10 times the network's mesh size.

3. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 2, wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a length that is 10% to 100%, 10% to 90%, 10% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 10% to 60%, 10% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 10% to 15%, 10% to 20%, 10% to 25%, 10 to 30%, 15% to 20%, 15% to 25%, 15% to 30%, 20 to 25%, or 25% to 30% of the largest dimension of the network, and preferably wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a length that is 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network.

4. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 2 or embodiment 3, wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a minimum cross-section of 5 to 10 times, 5 to 15 times, 5 to 20 times, 5 to 25 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 15 to 20 times, 15 to 25 times, 15 to 30 times, 20 to 25 times, 20 to 30 times, or 25 to 30 times the network's mesh size, and preferably wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

5. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 4, comprising a plurality of channels.

6. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 5, comprising a plurality of channels, each channel independently characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

-   -   (a) the channel extends into the interior from a point that is         less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8 microns,         less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5 microns,         less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns,         less than 1 micron from the surface or on the surface, and         preferably wherein the channel extends into the interior from a         point that is less than 5 microns from the surface;     -   (b) the channel has a length that is at least 10%, at least 15%,         at least 20%, or at least 25% of the largest dimension of the         network, and preferably wherein the channel has a length that is         10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network; and/or     -   (c) the channel has a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times,         at least 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20 times the         network's mesh size, and preferably wherein the channel has a         minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

7. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 6, wherein one or more channels of the plurality has a length that is 10% to 100%, 10% to 90%, 10% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 10% to 60%, 10% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 10% to 15%, 10% to 20%, 10% to 25%, 10 to 30%, 15% to 20%, 15% to 25%, 15% to 30%, 20 to 25%, or 25% to 30% of the largest dimension of the network, and preferably wherein one or more channels of the plurality has a length that is 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network.

8. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 6 or embodiment 7, wherein one or more channels of the plurality has a minimum cross-section of 5 to 10 times, 5 to 15 times, 5 to 20 times, 5 to 25 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 15 to 20 times, 15 to 25 times, 15 to 30 times, 20 to 25 times, 20 to 30 times, or 25 to 30 times the network's mesh size, and preferably wherein one or more channels of the plurality has a minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

9. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 5 to 8, comprising a plurality of channels that converge at a point in the interior of the network such that the lateral distance between the channels decreases from the surface toward the point in the interior.

10. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 9, comprising at least 5 channels, at least 10 channels or at least 15 channels, preferably comprising 10 to 50 channels.

11. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 10, wherein a majority of the channels are each characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

-   -   (a) the channel extends into the interior from a point that is         less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8 microns,         less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5 microns,         less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns,         less than 1 micron rom the surface or is on the surface,         preferably wherein the channel extends into the interior from a         point that is less than 5 microns from the surface;     -   (b) the channel has a length that is at least 10%, at least 15%,         at least 20%, or at least 25% of the largest dimension of the         network, and preferably wherein the channel has a length that is         10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network;     -   (c) the channel has a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times,         at least 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20 times the         network's mesh size, preferably wherein the channel has a         minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

12. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 11, wherein a majority of the channels have a length that is 10% to 100%, 10% to 90%, 10% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 10% to 60%, 10% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 10% to 15%, 10% to 20%, 10% to 25%, 10 to 30%, 15% to 20%, 15% to 25%, 15% to 30%, 20 to 25%, or 25% to 30% of the largest dimension of the network, and preferably wherein a majority of the channels have a length that is 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network.

13. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 11 or embodiment 12, wherein a majority of the channels have a minimum cross-section of 5 to 10 times, 5 to 15 times, 5 to 20 times, 5 to 25 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 15 to 20 times, 15 to 25 times, 15 to 30 times, 20 to 25 times, 20 to 30 times, or 25 to 30 times the network's mesh size, and preferably wherein a majority of the channels have a minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

14. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 13, wherein the network has in its hydrated state a mesh size of 5 to 75 nm, 10 to 20 nm, 10 to 30 nm, 10 to 40 nm, 10 to 50 nm, 20 to 30 nm, 20 to 40 nm, 20 to 50 nm, 30 to 40 nm, 30 to 50 nm, or 40 to 50 nm.

15. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 14, wherein the crosslinked polymer comprises a crosslinked homopolymer, a crosslinked copolymer, or a crosslinked mixture of a homopolymer and a copolymer, and preferably wherein the crosslinked polymer comprises a crosslinked copolymer.

16. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 15, wherein the crosslinked polymer comprises a polymer polymerized from one or more species of monomers, each species comprising a polymerizable group independently selected from an acrylate group, a methacrylate group, an ethacrylate group, a 2-phenyl acrylate group, an acrylamide group, a methacrylamide group, an itaconate group, and a styrene group, and preferably wherein at least one monomer species in the polymer comprises a methacrylate group, optionally wherein the monomer is methacryloyloxybenzophenone (MABP).

17. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 16, wherein the crosslinked polymer comprises a polymer polymerized from dimethylacrylamide (DMAA), methacryloyloxybenzophenone (MABP), and sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate (SSNa).

18. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the probe molecules are covalently attached to the network.

19. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 18, wherein a majority of probe molecules are immobilized in the interior of the network.

20. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 19, wherein at least a portion of the probe molecules adjoin a channel.

21. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 20, wherein the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid, a nucleic acid derivative, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a carbohydrate, a lipid, a cell, a ligand, or a combination thereof, preferably wherein the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid or a nucleic acid derivative.

22. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 21, wherein the probe molecules comprise an antibody, an antibody fragment, an antigen, an epitope, an enzyme, an enzyme substrate, an enzyme inhibitor, a nucleic acid, or a combination thereof.

23. The three-dimensional network of any one of embodiments 1 to 22, wherein the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid.

24. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 23, wherein the nucleic acid is an oligonucleotide.

25. The three-dimensional network of embodiment 24, wherein the oligonucleotide is 12 to 30, 14 to 30, 14 to 25, 14 to 20, 15 to 30, 15 to 25, 15 to 20, 16 to 30, 16 to 25, 16 to 20, 15 to 40, 15 to 45, 15 to 50, 15 to 60, 20 to 55, 18 to 60, 20 to 50, 30 to 90, 20 to 100, 20 to 60, 40 to 80, 40 to 100, 20 to 120, 20 to 40, 40 to 60, 60 to 80, 80 to 100, 100 to 120 or 12 to 150 nucleotides long, and preferably wherein the oligonucleotide is 15 to 60 nucleotides long.

26. An array comprising a plurality of three-dimensional networks according to any one of embodiments 1 to 25 on a substrate.

27. The array of embodiment 26, wherein the three-dimensional networks are immobilized on the substrate.

28. The array of embodiment 27, wherein the three-dimensional networks are immobilized on the substrate by covalent bonds between the networks and the substrate.

29. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 28, wherein the substrate comprises an organic polymer or an inorganic material having a self-assembled monolayer of organic molecules on a surface of the inorganic material.

30. The array of embodiment 29, wherein the substrate comprises an organic polymer selected from cycloolefin copolymers, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene and polymethylmethacrylate, preferably wherein the substrate comprises a cycloolefin copolymer, polystyrene or polymethylmethacrylate.

31. The array of embodiment 29, wherein the substrate comprises an inorganic material having an alkyl silane self-assembled monolayer on a surface of the inorganic material.

32. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 31, comprising at least 8, at least 16, at least 24, at least 48, at least 96, at least 128, at least 256, at least 512, or at least 1024 three-dimensional networks, preferably wherein the array comprises at least 24 three-dimensional networks.

33. The array of embodiment 32, comprising 24 to 8192, 24 to 4096, 24 to 2048, or 24 to 1024 three-dimensional networks, preferably wherein the array comprises 24 to 1024 three-dimensional networks.

34. The array of embodiment 32 or embodiment 33, comprising 24, 48, 96, 128, 256, 512, or 1024 three-dimensional networks.

35. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 34, wherein each of the three-dimensional networks is located at a separate spot on the substrate.

36. The array of embodiment 35, wherein the spots are arranged in columns and rows.

37. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 36, wherein the substrate comprises a microwell plate and the three-dimensional networks are positioned in the wells of the plate.

38. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 37, wherein the plurality of three-dimensional networks comprises two or more three-dimensional networks comprising different species of probe molecules.

39. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 38, wherein the plurality of three-dimensional networks comprises two or more three-dimensional networks comprising the same species of probe molecules.

40. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 39, wherein a majority of the three-dimensional networks comprise the same species of probe molecules or wherein all the three-dimensional networks comprises the same species of probe molecules.

41. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 40, wherein the plurality of three-dimensional networks comprises one or more three-dimensional networks comprising labeled control probe molecules.

42. The array of embodiment 41, wherein the labeled control probe molecules are fluorescently labeled.

43. The array of embodiment 41 or embodiment 42, wherein at least one control probe molecule is a spatial control.

44. The array of any one of embodiments 26 to 42, which can be reused.

45. The array of embodiment 44, which can be reused at least 5 times, at least 10 times, at least 20 times, at least 30 times, at least 40 times, at least 50 times, at least 60 times, at least 70 times, at least 80 times, at least 90 times, or at least 100 times, preferably wherein the array can be used at least 10 times.

46. The array of embodiment 44 or embodiment 45, in which at least one three-dimensional network is a reusability control.

47. The array of embodiment 46, wherein the reusability control comprises a fluorescently labeled probe.

48. The array of embodiment 47, wherein the reusability control is also a spatial control.

49. A process for making a three-dimensional network having a surface and an interior comprising (a) a crosslinked polymer and (b) one or more channels, comprising:

-   -   (a) exposing a mixture to salt crystal forming conditions, said         mixture comprising (i) an aqueous salt solution, (ii) a polymer,         and (iii) a cross-linker and optionally positioned on the         surface of a substrate, thereby forming a mixture containing one         or more salt crystals;     -   (b) exposing the mixture containing one or more salt crystals to         crosslinking conditions, thereby forming a crosslinked polymer         network containing one or more salt crystals; and     -   (c) contacting the crosslinked polymer network containing one or         more salt crystals with a solvent in which the one or more salt         crystals are soluble, thereby dissolving the salt crystals and         forming one or more channels in place of the salt crystals;

thereby forming the three-dimensional network comprising a crosslinked polymer and one or more channels.

50. The process of embodiment 49, wherein the salt forming conditions comprise forming one or more needle-shaped crystals.

51. The process of embodiment 49 or 50, in which at least one of the one or more channels is characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

-   -   (a) the channel extends into the interior from a point that is         less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8 microns,         less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5 microns,         less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2 microns,         less than 1 micron from the surface, or on the surface,         preferably wherein the channel extends into the interior from a         point that is less than 5 microns from the surface;     -   (b) the channel has a length that is at least 10%, at least 15%,         at least 20%, at least 25% of the largest dimension of the         network, preferably wherein the channel has a length that is at         least 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network;     -   (c) the channel has a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times,         at least, 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20 times the         network's mesh size, preferably wherein the channel has a         minimum cross-section of at least 10 times the network's mesh         size.

52. The process of embodiment 51, wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a length that is 10% to 100%, 10% to 90%, 10% to 80%, 10% to 70%, 10% to 60%, 10% to 50%, 10% to 40%, 10% to 30%, 10% to 15%, 10% to 20%, 10% to 25%, 10 to 30%, 15% to 20%, 15% to 25%, 15% to 30%, 20 to 25%, or 25% to 30% of the largest dimension of the network, preferably wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a length that is 10% to 50% of the largest dimension of the network.

53. The process of embodiment 51 or embodiment 52, wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a minimum cross-section of 5 to 10 times, 5 to 15 times, 5 to 20 times, 5 to 25 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 10 to 15 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 25 times, 10 to 30 times, 15 to 20 times, 15 to 25 times, 15 to 30 times, 20 to 25 times, 20 to 30 times, or 25 to 30 times the network's mesh size, preferably wherein at least one of the one or more channels has a minimum cross-section of 10 to 30 times the network's mesh size.

54. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 53, wherein the salt forming conditions comprise dehydrating the mixture or cooling the mixture until the mixture becomes supersaturated with the salt.

55. The process of embodiment 54, comprising dehydrating the mixture by heating the mixture, exposing the mixture to a vacuum, and/or reducing the humidity of the atmosphere surrounding the mixture, preferably wherein the process comprises dehydrating the mixture by exposing the mixture to a vacuum.

56. The process of embodiment 55, comprising heating the mixture by contacting the mixture with a gas that has a temperature which is higher than the temperature of the mixture.

57. The process of embodiment 54, comprising cooling the mixture by contacting the mixture with a gas that has a temperature which is lower than the temperature of the mixture.

58. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 57, wherein the temperature of the mixture during step (a) is maintained above the dew point of the atmosphere surrounding the mixture.

59. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 58, wherein:

-   -   (a) the cross-linker is activated by ultraviolet (UV) light and         the crosslinking conditions comprise exposing the mixture to         ultraviolet light;     -   (b) the cross-linker is activated by visible light and the         crosslinking conditions comprise exposing the mixture to visible         light; or     -   (c) the cross-linker is activated by heat and the crosslinking         conditions comprise exposing the mixture to heat,     -   preferably wherein the cross-linker is activated by UV light and         the crosslinking conditions comprise exposing the mixture to UV         light.

60. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 59, wherein the aqueous salt solution comprises monovalent cations.

61. The process of embodiment 60, in which the monovalent cations comprise Na⁺ and/or K⁺, preferably wherein the monovalent cations comprise Na⁺ and K⁺.

62. The process of embodiment 61, wherein the aqueous salt solution comprises a solution produced by a process comprising dissolving disodium hydrogen phosphate, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, or a combination thereof in water or an aqueous solution.

63. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 62, wherein the polymer comprises a homopolymer, a copolymer, or a mixture of a homopolymer and a copolymer, preferably wherein the polymer comprises a copolymer.

64. The process of embodiment 63, wherein the polymer comprises a polymer polymerized from one or more species of monomers, each species comprising a polymerizable group independently selected from an acrylate group, a methacrylate group, an ethacrylate group, a 2-phenyl acrylate group, an acrylamide group, a methacrylamide group, an itaconate group, and a styrene group, preferably wherein at least one monomer species in the polymer comprises a methacrylate group, optionally wherein the monomer is methacryloyloxybenzophenone (MABP).

65. The process of embodiment 64, wherein the crosslinked polymer comprises a polymer polymerized from dimethylacrylamide (DMAA), methacryloyloxybenzophenone (MABP), and sodium 4-vinylbenzenesulfonate (SSNa).

66. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 65, wherein the polymer is a copolymer comprising the cross-linker.

67. The process of embodiment 66, wherein the polymer comprises at least two cross-linkers per polymer molecule.

68. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 67, wherein the cross-linker is selected from benzophenone, a thioxanthone, a benzoin ether, ethyl eosin, eosin Y, rose bengal, camphorquinone, erythirosin, 4,4′ azobis(4-cyanopentanoic) acid, 2,2-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl) propane] dihydrochloride, and benzoyl peroxide, preferably wherein the cross-linker is benzophenone.

69. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 68, wherein the solvent is water or a water-based buffer, preferably where the solvent is water.

70. The process of embodiment 69, wherein the solvent is a water-based buffer comprising phosphate, methanol, ethanol, propanol, or a mixture thereof.

71. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 70, wherein the mixture of step (a) further comprises probe molecules.

72. The process of embodiment 71, wherein at least some, the majority or all the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid, a nucleic acid derivative, a peptide, a polypeptide, a protein, a carbohydrate, a lipid, a cell, a ligand, or a combination thereof, preferably wherein at least some, the majority or all the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid or a nucleic acid derivative.

73. The process of embodiment 71, wherein at least some, the majority or all the probe molecules comprise an antibody, an antibody fragment, an antigen, an epitope, an enzyme, an enzyme substrate, an enzyme inhibitor, a nucleic acid, or a combination thereof, preferably wherein at least some, the majority or all the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid.

74. The process of any one of embodiments 71 to 73, wherein the probe molecules comprise a nucleic acid.

75. The process of embodiment 74, wherein the nucleic acid is an oligonucleotide.

76. The process of embodiment 74, wherein the oligonucleotide is 12 to 30, 14 to 30, 14 to 25, 14 to 20, 15 to 30, 15 to 25, 15 to 20, 16 to 30, 16 to 25, 16 to 20, 15 to 40, 15 to 45, 15 to 50, 15 to 60, 20 to 55, 18 to 60, 20 to 50, 30 to 90, 20 to 100, 20 to 60, 40 to 80, 40 to 100, 20 to 120, 20 to 40, 40 to 60, 60 to 80, 80 to 100, 100 to 120 or 12 to 150 nucleotides long, preferably wherein the oligonucleotide is 15 to 60 nucleotides long.

77. The process of any one of embodiments 49 to 76, further comprising, prior to step (a), a step of applying the mixture to a surface of a substrate, optionally in a volume of optionally in a volume of 100 pl to 5 nl, 100 pl to 1 nl, or 200 pl to 1 nl.

78. The process of embodiment 77, wherein the step of applying the mixture to the substrate comprises spraying the mixture onto the surface of the substrate.

79. The process of embodiment 78, wherein the mixture is sprayed by an inkjet printer.

80. The process of any one of embodiments 77 to 79, wherein the substrate comprises an organic polymer or an inorganic material having a self-assembled monolayer of organic molecules on the surface, preferably wherein the substrate comprises an organic polymer.

81. The process of embodiment 80, wherein the substrate comprises an organic polymer selected from cycloolefin copolymers, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene and polymethylmethacrylate, preferably wherein the substrate comprises polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, or cycloolefin copolymers.

82. The process of embodiment 80, wherein the substrate comprises an inorganic material having an alkyl silane self-assembled monolayer on the surface.

83. The process of any one of embodiments 77 to 82, wherein the substrate comprises a microwell plate.

84. The process of any one of embodiments 77 to 83, wherein the polymer is crosslinked to the surface in step (b).

85. A process for making an array, comprising generating a plurality of three-dimensional networks by the process of any one of claims 49 to 84 at discrete spots on the surface of the same substrate (simultaneously or sequentially), and optionally further comprising crosslinking the plurality of three-dimensional networks to the surface of the substrate.

86. A process for making an array, comprising positioning a plurality of three-dimensional networks (a) according to any one of embodiments 1 to 25 or (b) produced or obtainable according to the process of any one of embodiments 49 to 76 at discrete spots on a surface of the same substrate.

87. The process of embodiment 85 or 86, further comprising crosslinking the plurality of three-dimensional networks to the surface.

88. A process for making an array, comprising positioning a plurality of three-dimensional networks produced or obtainable according to the process of any one of embodiments 77 to 84 at discrete spots on a surface of the same substrate.

89. The process of embodiment 88, wherein the positioning comprises applying the mixtures from which the three-dimensional networks are formed at the discrete spots.

90. The process of any one of embodiments 85 to 89, wherein the spots are arranged in columns and/or rows.

91. A three-dimensional network produced or obtainable by the process of any one of embodiments 49 to 84.

92. An array comprising a plurality of three-dimensional networks according to embodiment 91 on a substrate.

93. An array produced or obtainable by the process of any one of embodiments 85 to 90.

94. The array of embodiment 92 or embodiment 93, comprising at least 8, at least 16, at least 24, at least 48, at least 96, at least 128, at least 256, at least 512, or at least 1024 three-dimensional networks, preferably comprising at least 24 three-dimensional networks.

95. The array of embodiment 94, comprising 24 to 8192, 24 to 4096, 24 to 2048, or 24 to 1024 three-dimensional networks, preferably comprising 24 to 1024 three-dimensional networks.

96. The array of embodiment 94 or embodiment 95, comprising 24, 48, 96, 128, 256, 512, or 1024 three-dimensional networks.

97. The array of any one of embodiments 92 to 96, wherein the three-dimensional networks comprise probe molecules, and two or more of three-dimensional networks comprise different species of probe molecules.

98. The array of any one of embodiments 92 to 97, wherein the three-dimensional networks comprise probe molecules, and two or more three-dimensional networks comprise the same species of probe molecules.

99. The array of any one of embodiments 92 to 96, wherein the three-dimensional networks comprise probe molecules, and each of the three-dimensional networks comprise the same species of probe molecules.

100. The array of any one of embodiments 92 to 99, wherein the plurality of three-dimensional networks comprises one or more three-dimensional networks comprising labeled control probe molecules.

101. The array of embodiment 100, wherein the labeled control probe molecules are fluorescently labeled.

102. The array of any one of embodiments 92 to 101, wherein the substrate comprises a microwell plate and each well of the microwell plate contains no more than a single three-dimensional network.

103. A method for determining whether an analyte is present in a sample, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting a three-dimensional network according to any one         of embodiments 1 to 25 or 90 or an array of any one of         embodiments 26 to 45 or 92 to 102 comprising probe molecules         that are capable of binding to the analyte with the sample; and     -   (b) detecting binding of the analyte to the probe molecules in         the three-dimensional network or array, thereby determining         whether the analyte is present in the sample.

104. The method of embodiment 103, which further comprises washing the network or array comprising probe molecules between steps (a) and (b).

105. The method of embodiment 103 or embodiment 104, which further comprises contacting the network or array comprising probe molecules with a blocking reagent prior to step (a).

106. The method of any one of embodiments 103 to 105, further comprising quantifying the amount of analyte bound to the three-dimensional network or array comprising probe molecules.

107. A method for determining whether an analyte is present in each sample in a plurality of samples, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting an array of any one of embodiments 26 to 45 or 92         to 102 comprising probe molecules that are capable of binding to         the analyte with the samples; and     -   (b) detecting binding of the analyte to the probe molecules in         the array, thereby determining whether the analyte is present in         each sample in the plurality of samples.

108. A method for determining whether an analyte is present in each sample in a plurality of samples, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting an array of any one of embodiments 26 to 45 or 92         to 102 comprising probe molecules that are capable of binding to         the analyte with the samples and comprising control probe         molecules, wherein the array has been used and washed prior to         step (a); and     -   (b) detecting binding of the analyte to the probe molecules in         the array, thereby determining whether the analyte is present in         each sample in the plurality of samples.

109. A method for determining whether more than one species of analyte is present in a sample, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting an array of any one of embodiments 26 to 45 or 92         to 101 comprising different species of probe molecules that are         capable of binding to the different species of analytes with the         sample; and     -   (b) detecting binding of the analytes to the probe molecules in         the array, thereby determining whether more than one species of         analyte are present in the sample.

110. A method for determining whether more than one species of analyte is present in a sample, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting an array of any one of embodiments 26 to 45 or 92         to 102 comprising different species of probe molecules that are         capable of binding to the different species of analytes with the         sample and comprising control probe molecules, wherein the array         has been used and washed prior to step (a); and     -   (b) detecting binding of the analytes to the probe molecules in         the array, thereby determining whether more than one species of         analyte are present in the sample.

111. The method of any one of embodiments 107 to 110, in which:

-   -   (a) the substrate of the array comprises a microwell plate;     -   (b) each well of the microwell plate contains no more than a         single three-dimensional network; and     -   (c) contacting the array with the samples comprises contacting         each well with no more than a single sample.

112. The method of any one of embodiments 107 to 111, which further comprises washing the array comprising probe molecules between steps (a) and (b).

113. The method of any one of embodiments 107 to 112, which further comprises contacting the array comprising probe molecules with a blocking reagent prior to step (a).

114. The method of any one of embodiments 107 to 113, further comprising quantifying the amount of analyte or analytes bound to the array.

115. The method of any one of embodiments 103 to 114, further comprising reusing the array.

116. The method of embodiment 115, wherein the array is reused at least 5 times, at least 10 times, at least 20 times, at least 30 times, at least 40 times, or at least 50 times, preferably comprising using the array at least 10 times.

117. The method of embodiment 116, comprising reusing the array 5 to 20 times, 5 to 30 times, 10 to 50 times, 10 to 20 times, 10 to 30 times, 20 to 40 times, or 40 to 50 times, preferably comprising reusing the array 10 to 50 times.

118. The method of any one of embodiments 115 to 117, which comprises washing the array between reuses.

119. The method of embodiment 118, wherein the array is washed under denaturing conditions, optionally wherein the denaturing conditions comprise exposing the array to heat, low salt concentrations, or both.

120. The method of embodiment 119, wherein the denaturing conditions are removed prior to reuse, e.g., by lowering the temperature and/or increasing salt concentration, as applicable.

121. The method of any one of embodiments 115 to 120, wherein the array comprises at least one three-dimensional network comprising a fluorescently labelled oligonucleotide as a reusability control.

122. The method of embodiment 121, which comprises testing the fluorescent signal strength.

123. The method of embodiment 122, wherein the reusability control retains at least 70% of its initial fluorescence signal strength after 10 uses.

124. The method of embodiment 123, wherein the reusability control retains at least 50% of its signal strength after 20 uses.

125. The method of any one of embodiments 121 to 124, wherein the array is no longer reused after the reusability control loses more than 50% of its signal strength.

126. The method of any one of embodiments 103 to 125, wherein analyte is a nucleic acid.

127. The method of embodiment 126, wherein the nucleic acid is a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicon.

128. The method of embodiment 126, wherein the PCR amplicon is amplified from a biological sample or environmental sample.

-   -   (a) The method of embodiment 128, wherein the biological sample         is a blood, serum, plasma, tissue, cells, saliva, sputum, urine,         cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, milk, tears, stool, sweat,         semen, whole cells, cell constituent, cell smear, or an extract         or derivative thereof, preferably wherein the biological sample         is selected from (a) mammalian (e.g., human or bovine) blood,         serum or plasma or an extract thereof or (b) milk (e.g., cow's         milk) or an extract thereof.

129. The method of any one of embodiments 126 to 128(a), wherein nucleic acid is labeled.

130. The method of embodiment 129, wherein the nucleic acid is fluorescently labeled.

131. A three-dimensional network (15) having a surface (16) and an interior comprising:

-   -   (a) a crosslinked polymer (3) covalently attached to the surface         (2) of a substrate;     -   (b) one or more channels (13); and     -   (c) probe molecules immobilized (1) in the network (15),         optionally wherein         -   (i) probe molecules (1) are covalently attached to the             network (15) and/or         -   (ii) a majority of probe molecules (1) are immobilized in             the interior of the network (15) and/or         -   (iii) a majority of probe molecules (1) adjoin a channel             (13).

132. The three-dimensional network (15) of embodiment 131, wherein at least one or at least a majority of the channels (13) is characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

(a) the channel (13) extends into the interior from a point that is less than 5 microns from the surface (16) of the network (15) or extends into the interior from a point on the surface (16) of the network (15);

(b) the channel (13) has a length that is at least 10 or at least 20% of the largest dimension of the network (15); and

(c) the channel (13) has a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times or at least 15 times the network's (15) mesh size.

133. The three-dimensional network (15) of embodiment 132, wherein at least one or at least a majority of the channels (13)

-   -   (a) has a length that is 10% to 40% or 15% to 25% of the largest         dimension of the network (15) and/or     -   (b) has a minimum cross-section of 5 to 10 times or 10 to 25         times the network's (15) mesh size.

134. The three-dimensional network (15) of any one of embodiments 131 to 133, comprising at least 5 channels (13), at least 10 channels (13) or at least 15 channels (13), optionally wherein a plurality of channels (13) converge at a point in the interior of the network (15) such that the lateral distance between the channels (13) decreases from the surface (16) of the network (15) toward the point in the interior, and optionally wherein each channel (13) is independently characterized by one, two, or three of the following properties:

-   -   (a) the channel (13) extends into the interior from a point that         is less than 10 microns, less than 9 microns, less than 8         microns, less than 7 microns, less than 6 microns, less than 5         microns, less than 4 microns, less than 3 microns, less than 2         microns, less than 1 micron from the surface (16) of the network         (15) or on the surface (16) of the network (15);     -   (b) the channel (13) has a length that is at least 10%, at least         15%, at least 20%, or at least 25% of the largest dimension of         the network (15), and; and/or     -   (c) the channel (13) has a minimum cross-section of at least 5         times, at least 10 times, at least 15 times, or at least 20         times the network's (15) mesh size.

135. The three-dimensional network (15) of any one of embodiments 131 to 134, wherein the network (15) has in its hydrated state a mesh size of 5 to 75 nm or 10 to 50 nm.

136. An array comprising a plurality of three-dimensional networks (15) according to any one of embodiments 131 to 135 on a substrate, optionally wherein (a) the three-dimensional networks (15) are immobilized on the substrate and/or (b) each of the three-dimensional networks (15) is located at a separate spot (7) on the substrate.

137. The array of embodiment 136, comprising at least 8 or at least 48 three-dimensional networks (15), optionally wherein the number of three-dimensional networks (15) on the array ranges between 24 and 1024.

138. The array of embodiment 136 or embodiment 137, wherein the plurality of three-dimensional networks (15) comprises one or more three-dimensional networks (15) comprising labeled control probe molecules (1), optionally wherein the labeled control probe molecules (1) are fluorescently labeled.

139. The array of any one of embodiments 136 to 138 which can be reused, optionally wherein the array can be reused at least 10 times.

140. A process for making a three-dimensional network (15) according to any one of embodiments 131 to 135, comprising the steps of:

-   -   (a) exposing a mixture (5) positioned on the surface (2) of a         substrate to needle-shaped crystal forming conditions, said         mixture (5) comprising         -   (i) an aqueous salt solution which is optionally a             monovalent cation salt solution,         -   (ii) a polymer, and (iii) a cross-linker, thereby forming a             mixture (5) containing one or more needle-shaped salt             crystals (8);     -   (b) exposing the mixture (5) containing one or more salt         crystals (8) to crosslinking conditions, thereby forming a         crosslinked polymer network (15) containing one or more         needle-shaped salt crystals (8); and     -   (c) contacting the crosslinked polymer network (15) containing         one or more salt crystals (8) with a solvent in which the one or         more salt crystals (8) are soluble, thereby dissolving the         needle-shaped salt crystals (8) and forming one or more channels         (13) in place of the salt crystals (8).

141. The process of embodiment 140, wherein:

-   -   (a) the needle-shaped crystal salt forming conditions comprise:         -   (i) dehydrating the mixture (5) optionally by heating the             mixture (5) (optionally by contacting the mixture (5) with a             gas that has a temperature which is higher than the             temperature of the mixture (5)), exposing the mixture (5) to             a vacuum, and/or reducing the humidity of the atmosphere             surrounding the mixture (5); or         -   (ii) cooling the mixture (5), optionally by contacting the             mixture (5) with a gas that has a temperature which is lower             than the temperature of the mixture (5); and/or     -   (b) wherein the solvent is a water-based buffer, said buffer         optionally comprising phosphate, methanol, ethanol, propanol, or         a mixture thereof.

142. The process of embodiment 140 or embodiment 141, wherein the mixture (5) of step (a) further comprises probe molecules (1).

143. The process of any one of embodiments 140 to 142, further comprising, prior to step (a), a step of applying the mixture (5) to a surface (2) of a substrate, optionally in a volume of 100 pl to 5 nl, in a volume of 100 pl to 1 nl or in a volume 500 pl to 2 nl.

144. A process for making an array, comprising (a) creating a plurality of three-dimensional networks (15) by the process of any one of embodiments 140 to 143 at discrete spots (7) on the surface (2) of the same substrate, and (b) crosslinking the plurality of three-dimensional networks (15) to the surface (2) of the substrate.

145. A method for determining whether an analyte is present in a sample, comprising:

-   -   (a) contacting a three-dimensional network (15) according to any         one of embodiments 131 to 135 comprising probe (1) molecules         that are capable of binding to the analyte with the sample,         optionally wherein the three-dimensional network (15) is         positioned on an array according to any one of embodiments 136         to 139; and     -   (b) detecting and optionally quantifying binding of the analyte         to the probe molecules (1) in the three-dimensional network (15)         or array, thereby determining whether the analyte is present in         the sample and optionally the amount of the analyte.

146. The method of embodiment 145, wherein:

-   -   (a) the network (15) or array has been used and washed prior to         step (a), optionally at least 10 times, at least 20 times or at         least 50 times; and/or     -   (b) further comprising reusing the network (15) or array         following step (b), optionally at least 10 times, at least 20         times or at least 50 times.

147. The method of embodiment 145 or embodiment 146, wherein the analyte is a nucleic acid, optionally wherein the nucleic acid is a fluorescently labeled polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicon.

While various specific embodiments have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure(s).

10. CITATION OF REFERENCES

All publications, patents, patent applications and other documents cited in this application are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, patent application or other document were individually indicated to be incorporated by reference for all purposes. In the event that there is an inconsistency between the teachings of one or more of the references incorporated herein and the present disclosure, the teachings of the present specification are intended. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for determining whether an analyte is present in a sample, comprising: (a) contacting a three-dimensional network comprising probe molecules that are capable of binding to the analyte with the sample, wherein the three-dimensional network: (i) is composed of a water-swellable polymer formed by cross-linking a water-soluble polymer; (ii) is cross-linked to the surface of a rigid substrate; (iii) comprises one or more channels that are bounded by water-soluble polymer chains; and (iv) comprises probe molecules covalently attached to the water-soluble polymer chains; and (b) detecting binding of the analyte to the probe molecules in the three-dimensional network, thereby determining whether the analyte is present in the sample.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising quantifying binding of the analyte to the probe molecules in the three-dimensional network.
 3. Them method of claim 1, wherein the analyte is a nucleic acid.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the three-dimensional network has been used and washed at least 10 times prior to step (a).
 5. The method of claim 1, which further comprises reusing the three-dimensional network at least 10 times following step (b).
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the three-dimensional network comprises at least 5 channels that are bounded by water-soluble polymer chains and converge at a point in the interior of the network such that the lateral distance between the channels decreases from the surface of the water-swellable polymer toward the surface of the rigid substrate.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the three-dimensional network comprises at least 10 channels that are bounded by water-soluble polymer chains and converge at a point in the interior of the network such that the lateral distance between the channels decreases from the surface of the water-swellable polymer toward the surface of the rigid substrate.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network extends into the interior of the water-swellable polymer from a point that is less than 10 microns from the surface of the water-swellable polymer or extends into the interior of the water-swellable polymer from a point on the surface of the water-swellable polymer.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network extends into the interior of the water-swellable polymer from a point that is less than 5 microns from the surface of the water-swellable polymer or extends into the interior of the water-swellable polymer from a point on the surface of the water-swellable polymer.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network has a length that is at least 10% of the largest dimension of the three-dimensional network.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network has a length that is at least 20% of the largest dimension of the three-dimensional network.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network have a minimum cross-section of at least 5 times the three-dimensional network's mesh size.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of the channels in the three-dimensional network have a minimum cross-section of 5 to 25 times the three-dimensional network's mesh size.
 14. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of channels in the three-dimensional network have a minimum cross-section of at least 15 times the network's mesh size.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein at least at least a majority of the channels in the three-dimensional network have a length that is 15% to 25% of the largest dimension of the three-dimensional network.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the three-dimensional network has in its hydrated state a mesh size of 5 to 75 nm.
 17. The method of claim 6, wherein the three-dimensional network has in its hydrated state a mesh size of 5 to 75 nm.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of probe molecules in the three-dimensional network are in the interior of the water-swellable polymer.
 19. The method of claim 1, wherein at least a majority of probe molecules in the three-dimensional network adjoin a channel. 